身心连接的神经生物学机制
作为约翰·霍普金斯大学医学院的神经科学教授,David Linden博士长期致力于研究神经可塑性(Neuroplasticity: 大脑和神经系统因经验而改变的能力)。他指出,长期以来,生物学家们对“精神生活深刻影响身体”的观点持保留态度,因为这似乎无法用生物学范畴来检验。然而,他的精神科医生父亲曾告诉他,精神疗法之所以有效,并非基于某种魔法般的心理领域,而是因为它确实改变了大脑的生物学功能。这一原则同样适用于各种行为干预,无论是冥想练习(Meditative Practice: 通过集中注意力来训练意识的心理技术)、心理治疗(Psychotherapy: 通过语言和互动来治疗心理疾病的方法)还是控制呼吸(Controlled Breathing: 有意识地调节呼吸模式以影响生理和心理状态)。这些都不是虚无缥缈的“以太”效应,而是通过生物学机制发挥作用。过去十年,我们对这种生物学机制的理解取得了显著进展,许多曾被视为超自然的身心互动现象,如今正逐渐被赋予真实的生物学解释。
当前,我们对日常生理功能和疾病病理的理解,往往过于侧重身体本身。然而,一场认知革命正在发生:我们逐渐意识到,许多疾病过程(如癌症、自身免疫性疾病)以及日常行为(如睡眠、饮食)都受到大脑的强大控制。更重要的是,这种控制不仅仅是潜意识的,它意味着我们有机会通过行为实践来主动干预,无论是呼吸练习、冥想、心理治疗,还是体育锻炼,这为疾病的认知和治疗开辟了全新的途径。
身心交流的核心在于我们感知自身内部状态的内感受(Interoception: 感知身体内部信号的能力)和感知外部世界的外感受(Extraception: 感知外部环境刺激的能力)。传统的五感(嗅觉、味觉、视觉、触觉、听觉)主要指向外部世界,提供环境信息。但内感受系统则向内指向,提供诸如膀胱是否充盈、肠道是否排空、头部在重力作用下的姿态等身体内部信息。这些内感受信号对于持续的身心对话至关重要。
身心之间的信息传递主要通过三种途径:
- 快速电信号:如果信号需要快速传递(例如感知疼痛或体温),神经元会通过脊髓将电信号从身体部位直接传导至大脑。
- 慢速激素信号:对于可以缓慢作用的信号,身体会分泌激素(Hormone: 由内分泌腺分泌的调节生理过程的化学信使)。激素通过血液循环系统缓慢地到达大脑,并与神经元或其他脑细胞上的受体(Receptor: 细胞膜上或细胞内与特定分子结合并引发细胞反应的蛋白质)结合,产生持久的生理效应。
- 节律同步:大脑会持续响应我们的呼吸节律和心跳。每一次心跳都会对大脑中的动脉产生微小的扩张效应,大脑能够感知并对此作出反应,这是一种非常迅速的信号。
大脑作为“心”的具现,也会通过多种机制对身体作出回应。其中一些是神经信号(Neural Signals: 神经元之间传递信息的电化学信号)。神经信号又分为:
- 随意运动系统(Volitional or Somatic Motor System: 负责有意识控制骨骼肌运动的神经系统):例如,当你产生举起手臂的念头并付诸行动时,这是意识层面上的心对身的影响。
- 自主神经系统(Autonomic Nervous System: 调节非自主生理功能如心率、消化等的神经系统):这是一种主要在意识层面之下,心智控制身体的现象。自主神经系统又分为两个主要分支:
- 交感神经系统(Sympathetic Nervous System: 负责“战斗或逃跑”反应的神经系统):使身体进入高度戒备状态。
- 副交感神经系统(Parasympathetic Nervous System: 负责“休息和消化”反应的神经系统):使身体放松,促进消化和恢复。 这两个系统相互拮抗,如同阴阳,共同在潜意识层面调控着身心。
除了神经信号,大脑还可以通过释放激素来控制身体,这些激素会作用于垂体(Pituitary Gland: 位于大脑底部,分泌多种激素调节其他内分泌腺)和肾上腺(Adrenal Gland: 位于肾脏上方,分泌应激激素如皮质醇)等腺体,进而分泌更多激素,并通过循环系统广泛作用于全身,产生普遍性的影响。
第三种方式是通过免疫系统(Immune System: 身体抵抗疾病的防御系统)的调节。这主要通过一类专门用于免疫系统的激素分子——细胞因子(Cytokines: 参与细胞信号传导的蛋白质,尤其在免疫反应中)来实现。
Original English Source
I'm David Linden. I'm a professor of neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. For many years my laboratory has studied neuroplasticity that is how the brain and the nervous system are changed as the result of experience in the world. Chapter 1:The connection between mind and body. So like a lot of biologists, I've been resistant to the idea that our mental life affects our body profoundly because for so long it seemed like something that was untestable and ethereal and operated in a different realm from biological science. But my father was a psychiatrist and he told me when talking here psychiatry works it doesn't work in some magical psychological realm that is divorced from biology it works because it changes your brain and the same is true of any behavioral process whether it is meditative practice or psychotherapy or controlled breathing or what have you. These things aren't working in the ether. They are working through biology and in just the last ten years our understanding of that biology has gotten a whole lot better. So it's not as if that all claims that have been made through history about mind body medicine will turn out to be true and will turn out to be understandable but a subset of them that seemed supernatural at one point will turn out ultimately to have real biological explanations. So much of our understanding of both daily functioning and things going wrong in disease right now is focused on the body by itself. There is now a revolution where we're realizing that many disease processes and many things that we do every day from sleeping and waking to eating food and being hungry things like cancer autoimmune disease. These are things that we are now learning are strongly under the control of the brain and when things are under the control of the brain it's not just something that happens subconsciously it means we have the option to control them with our behavioral practices whether these are breathing practices meditative practices psychotherapy exercise it opens up an entire new way to think about disease. Maybe this would be a point to talk about interception and extraception. So when we think of the senses we tend to think of smell, taste, vision, touch, hearing things that are pointed outward towards the world that give you information about the world around you but we also have inward pointing so-called intraceptive senses or senses of self that tell us things like is my bladderful is my bowel full how is my head in relation to the force of gravity. These intraceptive senses are crucial to the ongoing conversation between mind and body. If these signals need to be seen really fast then they are conveyed electrically from neurons that run from the body up through the spinal cord and get to the brain. If they are signals that can work more slowly then the body can secrete a hormone the hormone passes through the blood system this is a slower process ultimately it makes its way to the brain and binds receptors on neurons or other cells in the brain to produce a slower effect. Yet another interesting way is that the brain is continuously responding to our breathing rhythm and our heartbeat so every pulse of the heart has a very slight effect on dilating arteries in our brain which our brain can then sense and act upon and that's a very rapid signal these are the ways that the body talks to the mind and of course the mind as instantiated in the brain will speak back through many other mechanisms some of them being neural signals and there are a couple of different kinds of these some are the volitional or somatic motor system so when you have a thought and you say I want to raise my arm and you raise your arm that's something that we all know about and that's something that is conveyed from the mind to the body in a conscious way but they're also subconscious ways and signals flowing and this involves something called the autonomic nervous system and this is mostly a phenomenon in which the mind controls the body at a level that's below your level of consciousness the autonomic nervous system is in turn divided into two general branches the sympathetic nervous system which people say prepares you to fight or flee or the parasympathetic nervous system which prepares you to rest and digest and so as you can imagine the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous systems are somewhat in opposition they're yin and yang so to speak of the way the mind controls the body subconsciously there are other ways too so the mind control the can control the body through the release of hormones that are released by the brain the effect places like the pituitary gland and the adrenal gland which secrete still more hormones and these are conveyed through the circulatory system broadly to all sites in the body so they tend to have broadcast at general effects so hormones neural signals and then the third way is through control of the immune system and through these are through a class of specialized hormones for the immune system molecules called cytokinesGLP-1药物与食欲调控的生物学“黑客”
我们对进食和饥饿的理解往往过于简化,认为饥饿时就吃,饱了就停。然而,这背后是身体与心智之间持续且复杂的对话,它同时涉及感知外部世界的感官(如披萨的香味)和感知身体内部状态的感官(如胃的饱胀感)。当我们闻到美味的食物时,大脑会根据内感受信息(Interoceptive Information: 来自身体内部的感知信息,如胃的饱胀度、血糖水平)和记忆(如对披萨的喜爱)来决定是否要主动寻找食物。
进食行为本身是一个连续的决策过程。从闻到食物、看到食物,到决定是否放入口中,以及咀嚼后是否吞咽,每一个环节都涉及复杂的感官输入和决策。例如,如果食物气味异常,我们会本能地选择不吃。吞咽决策则依赖于口感、味道(咸味、脂肪、酵母味)以及适口性判断。
在进食过程中,身体会通过多种信号流向大脑传递信息:
- 快速神经信号:胃部会迅速向大脑传递其膨胀程度和营养物质含量的信息。这解释了为何仅喝水无法抑制食欲,因为胃能够区分水和食物,甚至能识别食物中的脂肪、蛋白质和碳水化合物含量。这些快速信号有助于大脑决定是否应停止进食。
- 慢速激素信号:大约20分钟后,小肠上部的感受器会评估食物的营养成分,并分泌胰高血糖素样肽-1(Glucagon-like Peptide-1, 简称GLP-1:一种由肠道分泌的激素,能减缓胃排空、抑制食欲、刺激胰岛素分泌)。GLP-1激素有多重作用:它能作用于胃部受体,减缓胃蠕动和排空速度;更重要的是,它能作用于大脑中控制食欲的区域,从而抑制食欲,效应可持续数十分钟甚至一两个小时。
除了味蕾上的糖分感受器,胃和小肠中也存在类似的糖分感受器,它们会将信息传递给大脑,影响我们是否继续进食的决策。然而,广泛应用于苏打水和其他食物中的人工甜味剂(Artificial Sweeteners: 提供甜味但通常不含卡路里的替代品)虽然能欺骗口腔中的甜味感受器,却无法“愚弄”胃和肠道中的感受器,因为这些感受器在分子层面有所不同。这种口腔与肠道的信号不匹配,导致大脑接收到冲突的信号,这可能是人工甜味剂在体重管理方面效果不佳的原因之一。
近年来,基于GLP-1的减肥药备受关注。GLP-1是一种肽(Peptide: 由短链氨基酸组成的分子,介于氨基酸和蛋白质之间),天然状态下在血液中分解迅速。因此,天然GLP-1对大脑的食欲抑制作用非常短暂,需要每天多次注射才能有效。然而,制药公司诺和诺德(Novo Nordisk)的化学家们巧妙地修饰了天然GLP-1分子,在其侧链上连接了脂肪酸(Fatty Acids: 构成脂肪的有机酸)。这种修饰使GLP-1类似物能与血液中的白蛋白(Albumin: 血液中含量最丰富的蛋白质,具有运输和维持渗透压功能)结合,从而大大提高了其抗酶降解和肾脏排泄的抵抗力。结果,与天然GLP-1仅作用数分钟相比,这种改良后的GLP-1药物可以在血液中长时间存活,有效抑制食欲,实现每周一次注射。
当前市面上流行的GLP-1减肥药,如司美格鲁肽(Semaglutide: 商品名Wegovy或Ozempic)和替西帕肽(Tirzepatide: 商品名Zepbound或Mounjaro),通过模拟天然GLP-1信号,能非常有效地抑制食欲,患者通常能在数周内减重12%到17%。更令人惊讶的是,这些药物似乎具有超越单纯减重效果的额外健康益处。虽然具体原因尚不完全清楚,但这在生物学上是合理的,因为GLP-1受体不仅存在于胃和大脑,还广泛分布于心脏、肾脏、肝脏等多种器官中,并在这些器官中发挥着积极作用,很可能包括某种抗炎效应(Anti-inflammatory Effect: 抑制或减轻炎症反应的作用)。
尽管GLP-1减肥药效果显著,但也存在副作用,包括恶心、胃肠不适、脑雾或精力下降等。新一代减肥药正致力于改善这些副作用。此外,使用GLP-1药物减重不仅会减少脂肪,还会导致肌肉量(Muscle Mass: 身体中的肌肉组织总量)流失。因此,使用者需要注意通过负重锻炼和摄入充足蛋白质来维持肌肉量。这些药物需要长期使用,一旦停药,体重很可能反弹。
更有趣的是,早期研究表明,GLP-1减肥药除了抑制食欲,可能还能抑制其他成瘾性行为,如酒精、滥用药物,甚至是强迫性购物或赌博。这些行为都激活大脑的奖励回路(Reward Circuitry: 大脑中与愉悦和动机相关的神经通路)。虽然早期科学家认为食欲和一般奖励回路是独立的,但现有证据表明GLP-1药物可能对这些行为具有一定的控制作用。
Original English Source
chapter two hacking the hunger system with GLP1 so we think of eating and hunger as being a very straightforward thing oh yeah if you're a little hungry I eat something now I don't want to eat anymore but it's really complicated and it involves a lot of continual dialogue between the body and the mind using both the senses that are pointed out at the world and the senses that are pointed inward at the body so if you can imagine walking down the street in New York City near little hungry and you smell some pizza that smells good and the first thing you're doing is you're making a decision am I hungry do I want to go seek out where this odor is coming from oh yes I do so you're using interceptive information to say yes my stomach is not distended and full of nutrients and I feel hunger it's been a while since I last ate so I'm interested in this idea you're using your memory to say oh yes I remember that I like pizza that's a food that I enjoy and so these smells are bringing up positive associations and that is influencing your decision to go seek it out and then let's say you order a slice and you have it in your hand and you're looking at it and you're seeing it so you're taking in information with your eyes you're smelling it and then you're making a decision do I want to put this in my mouth or not and if it smells a little off if you sniff it and you think it might have spoiled or the oil is ransed or something bad you're gonna say well no maybe I won't put that in my mouth after all but really eating this a series of decisions so now let's say you've taken a bite and you go oh that's delicious yes I'm I'm I'm tasting the salt I'm tasting the fat I get that nice yeasty thing from the crust there's also mouth feel in my mouth I'm I gonna swallow this bite and you're saying oh yes this is palatable food there's nothing wrong with it and so I won't spit it out I'll swallow it that's yet another decision and then you're going on eating your slice perhaps you're walking down the street and you have to make a decision am I getting full this slice is enormous am I gonna am I gonna finish it or am I gonna chuck some of it in the trash and leave it be and that decision uses several different streams of information coming from your body it's using fast neural signals from your stomach that are saying how distended is my stomach how much has it swollen as a result of food filling it up and it is also using fast information from the stomach there cells in the lining of the stomach that evaluate the nutrient content of the food this is why you can't just drink a lot of water for example distended your stomach and then suppress your appetite that doesn't work as a diet strategy your stomach knows what's inside it can tell the difference between water and food and he can even tell what kind of food is there is it fatty is it protonaceous is it carbs that sort of information saying oh yes there are proteins there there are fats there there's a fairly high level of them and these are signals that go rapidly to your brain and inform the decision should I terminate this meal and stop eating or should I should I keep going a little while longer and then say 20 minutes later when you are making a decision do I want to eat again there are yet other sensors in not your stomach but in the first part of your small intestine that are evaluating the nutrient content of the food as it passes there and saying you know I just ate I have plenty of nutrients I have a feeling of fullness I'm not going to eat again for a while how does that happen well that is a slow hormonal signal and when food is sensed by particular neurons in the lining of the small intestine they secrete a hormone and the hormone is called glucagon like peptide one or glp one and this hormone has several effects it acts on receptors in the stomach to slow gastric motility so your stomach empties less quickly but more importantly it goes to centers in your brain that control your appetite and they suppress your appetite for tens of minutes or an hour or two afterwards so we all know that if you put sweet food in your mouth it tastes sweet and that the reason for that is that on your tongue and in your oral cavity there are special sensors for sugars but what most people don't know is that there are similar sensors for sugars actually in your stomach and in your small intestines and those sensors send information to your brain to guide decisions like should I stop eating food right now curiously though while artificial sweeteners that are widely used and sodas and other foods they do a very good job of mimicking real sugar for the sweet sensors that are in your oral cavity they don't fool the sensors that are in your stomach and your intestines because those in sensors are molecularly different so what that means is when you eat artificial sweeteners there's a mismatch your mouth is telling you oh this is sugar but your gut is saying no I don't think so this isn't real sugar and as a consequence your brain is getting conflicting signals and this is probably some of the reason why artificial sweeteners are really not a very effective strategy for losing weight if you haven't been living under a rock for the last few years you've heard that there are very popular diet drugs that are based upon the hormone GLP1 now GLP1 is a class of molecule called a peptide it's a short bit of a protein and these peptides are broken down very quickly in your bloodstream so when your small intestine secretes GLP1 that signal is only acting on your brain very briefly and so you would need to inject many times a day and it it's not wouldn't be an effective drug but some clever chemists at the drug company Novo Nordisk realized that you could take the natural GLP1 molecule and hang chemical groups off the side in particular you could hang fatty acids off the side and these fatty acids cause this GLP1 like molecule then to bind to a protein in the blood called albumin and when it's bound to albumin it's much more resistant to being degraded by enzymes and it's much more resistant to being immediately excreted by the kidney as a result while natural GLP1 acts for only minutes this modified GLP1 that makes a GLP1 based drug can suppress appetite for a very very long time it can live for a long time in the bloodstream and as a consequence you can use it to make a drug that you inject once a week and suppresses appetite strongly I'm talking about things like semagluetide which is known as wagovia or ozempic or terzepitide which is known as zepbound or moongiaro and these drugs by mimicking this natural signal are very effective at suppressing appetite and people are losing typically between 12 and 17 percent of their body weight after taking a once a week injection of these drugs over many weeks but they seem to be even better than that in other words if you compare the health benefits that you can measure from people who are taking GLP1 drugs it seems that there are beneficial effects above and beyond what you would predict from just the amount of weight they're losing and we don't entirely know why this happens but it makes sense biologically because the receptor for the hormone GLP1 which is also going to be activated by these drugs it's not just in your stomach and it's not just in your brain it's in all kinds of organs it's in your heart it's in your kidneys it's in your liver it's in all kinds of places and it's doing something good there we don't entirely know what that is but it's probably some sort of anti-inflammatory effect that provides benefit beyond just what the weight loss is doing GLP1 based weight loss drugs aren't perfect they have a lot of benefits but they have some side effects some people feel nauseated some people feel gastrointestinal distress sometimes people feel brain fog or a loss of energy on them and the newer generations of weight loss drugs that that are being developed right now may help to make those side effects better the other thing is that when you eat lifts you don't just lose fat mass you also lose muscle mass so you got to be really careful if you're losing weight on a GLP1 drug you want to go to the gym and do load bearing exercise to keep your muscle mass up you want to make sure that you're consuming enough protein to allow your muscles to be able to continue to to stay at a reasonable size so some of these problems may only emerge when we see people using them for years and years and years and you have to use them for years and years and years because they only work as long as you consume them you go on a GLP1 drug you use it for a year you go off the drug you're gonna gain all the weight back it doesn't seem to have a per permanent reversal effect when these drugs were first developed if you would ask to me as a neuroscientist would these drugs that suppress appetite also suppress the other kinds of rewards that people tend to overdo like alcohol or drugs of abuse or even compulsive shopping or gambling all of which activate the brain's reward circuitry I would have guessed no I would have said there's gonna be a separate circuit for appetite and there are reasons to keep that apart from the general reward circuitry but the indications are that this is not entirely the case so it's early days but there are promising indications that the GLP1 based weight loss drugs have some effectiveness for helping people to control their alcohol consumption and to help them get off of psychoactive drugs and maybe even to deal with compulsive behaviors that are making problems in their life like compulsive shopping or compulsive gambling it's gonna be really interesting to see how this plays out in research in the next few years so there are some really interesting things that have come out in the last few years in body to brain signaling that have implications for weight loss one of them has to do with exercise we know that when you exercise intensively it stimulates appetite and so some people think well you know I might go to the gym and work out real hard but then I'm gonna be a real hungry and then I'm gonna eat a lot of food and maybe there won't be a net benefit it seems to be though that intensive exercise does have a net benefit the amount that stimulates your appetite doesn't entirely compensate for the amount of weight that you burn through the intensive exercise why is that well part of it seems to be that when you have very intensive exercise you produce a metabolite called lactate it becomes conjugated in your body with an amino acid called phenylalanine and this conjugated compound seems to act through a rather complicated biochemical cascade in the body to get to the brain to suppress appetite itself so intensive exercise really does seem to be a good thing to do very few people can lose all the weight they want to lose from intensive exercise itself but it is very definitely a benefit and of course it has myriad benefits well beyond weight loss and looking good it has benefits for for your mood it has benefits for maintaining your cognitive function as you age there's all kinds of great reasons to want to exercise intensively but weight loss is one of them since 1960 the average person in the United States is 27 pounds heavier that's a lot why is that it's not that the genetics of people in the United States has changed it's not like there's a toxin or or there's a change in our metabolism the reason for this is the people who are making our highly processed foods as we find both in restaurants and also in the supermarket have laboratories where they figure out how to manipulate our appetite systems in our bodies and brains in order to get us to overeat and we have an evolutionary history right through most of our time as humans there have been intermittent famines food has often been scarce so it has made sense in those situations if you come across of very highly caloric fatty food or something really sweet it made star sense to snarp it all down and to put on a little weight so that the next time there was a famine you might survive and make your way through it there is a mismatch though most people in the world and certainly people in the United States don't live in that famine laden environment anymore and as a consequence when food service corporations through clever engineering override our natural inclinations to eat and stop eating with specially engineered foods they are exploiting this ancient circuit in our brains that says pack on the fat pack on the sweet so that you can survive to live another day信念与心理生理效应:巫毒死亡、心碎综合征与安慰剂
沃尔特·坎农(Walter Kennan: 20世纪初美国著名生理学家,提出了“战斗或逃跑”反应概念)在1942年报告的巫毒死亡(Voodoo Death: 一种因被诅咒的强烈信念导致的死亡现象)现象,展示了心理信念对身体的极端影响。坎农记录了许多因相信自己被诅咒而死亡的案例,并提出了一种生理学理论:交感神经系统在“咒死”过程中过度激活,引发一系列生理变化最终导致死亡。坎农的理论部分正确,但现代生理学揭示,“巫毒死亡”实际上是交感神经系统过度活跃与副交感神经系统持续高激活的“组合拳”效应,这两种系统共同导致身体机能崩溃。重要的是,这种现象只在个体深信诅咒的情况下发生,其生物学机制存在于受诅咒者的身心之中,而非超自然力量。
“巫毒死亡”并非仅限于拥有特定信仰体系的社会。医学文献中记载的致命性误诊(Fatal Misdiagnosis: 因被诊断患有绝症的强烈信念而导致的死亡)案例,例如20世纪70年代一名被误诊为肝癌的男性,在“撑过圣诞节”后随即去世。尸检发现他根本没有肝癌,其死亡很可能正是由对绝症的信念所引发,其机制与“巫毒死亡”如出一辙。
同样,“心碎综合征”(Broken Heart Syndrome: 在极度情感压力后出现的短暂性心肌病)也是一个引人注目的心理生理现象。流行病学研究证实,失去长期伴侣的人在短时间内死亡的风险会显著增加,死因涵盖心血管疾病、癌症和自身免疫性疾病等。这种巨大的情感悲痛状态,确实会恶化幸存者的健康预后。日本医生发现的章鱼壶心肌病(Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy: 一种在极度应激后发生的暂时性心肌功能障碍,心脏形状类似捕章鱼的容器)正是“心碎综合征”的生物学解释。它被认为是交感神经系统过度激活的结果,证实了悲伤的心理体验与心脏功能受损的身体体验之间存在生物学联系。
身心连接的积极一面同样令人惊叹。积极信念和心理状态也能产生有利的健康结果,例如缓解疼痛或改善疾病预后。安慰剂效应(Placebo Effect: 因相信某种治疗有效而产生的生理或心理改善)是最广为人知的例子。当病人被给予糖丸或假治疗,并被告知这能缓解疼痛时,他们常常真的感到疼痛减轻。我们现在对安慰剂效应的生物学机制有了很好的理解:它可以通过药物纳洛酮(Naloxone: 阿片受体拮抗剂,用于逆转阿片类药物过量)阻断。纳洛酮通过阻断大脑中的阿片受体发挥作用,这些受体不仅与海洛因、芬太尼等药物相关,也与大脑自身产生的天然吗啡样分子——内啡肽(Endorphins: 大脑产生的具有镇痛作用的神经递质)和脑啡肽(Enkephalins: 另一种内源性阿片肽,具有镇痛作用)结合。这表明安慰剂效应产生的止痛作用是通过大脑自身的内啡肽和脑啡肽系统介导的。
安慰剂效应不仅仅局限于止痛,它还可以影响术后恢复、愈合速度、免疫系统调节(包括增强或抑制免疫功能)。一些有趣的实验揭示了其机制:例如,如果将降血压药物与柠檬酸味饮料多次配对,就像巴甫洛夫的狗(Pavlov's Dog: 经典条件反射实验中通过铃声诱发唾液分泌的狗)一样,即使只喝柠檬酸味饮料,血压也会部分下降。这表明安慰剂效应的一部分可能是一种联想学习(Associative Learning: 学习不同刺激或事件之间关联的过程)。
在药物研发中,新药必须通过与安慰剂对照的临床试验。过去几十年来,止痛的安慰剂效应似乎变得越来越强,这使得新药很难显示出统计学上的显著优势。这种现象在全球并非普遍存在,主要发生在美国。研究推测,这可能与美国和新西兰允许直接面向消费者进行药物广告(Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Drugs: 制药公司直接向公众宣传处方药)的政策有关,这可能增强了公众对药物疗效的信念。
即使人们知道安慰剂被用于临床试验,或明确被告知正在服用“开放标签安慰剂”(Open-Label Placebo: 患者明确知道自己服用的是安慰剂的治疗方式),安慰剂效应依然存在,这令人费解,但已被大量研究证实。对这种生物学机制的理解,将推动我们更深入地探索身心信号,并可能启发未来医学的发展,例如:
- 行为干预:鼓励心脏病或癌症康复患者进行特定的行为干预。
- 新药物:开发调控身心通路的创新药物。
- 新型设备:设计通过刺激迷走神经(Vagus Nerve: 脑神经之一,参与调节心率、消化和情绪等多种生理功能)等方式激活副交感神经系统来治疗抑郁症或癫痫的植入式设备。
目前,非侵入性神经系统刺激技术(如经颅磁刺激(Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, TMS:一种非侵入性大脑刺激技术)和经颅直流电刺激(Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation, tDCS:一种利用弱电流调节大脑活动的非侵入性技术))仍较为粗糙,只能大范围刺激脑组织。但未来有望出现更精细的技术,能够精准激活大脑中特定类型的神经元。这些技术将为医学带来巨大益处,实现对身心信号的更有效利用。
Original English Source
chapter three voodoo death broken heart syndrome and placebo's every scientist I know has their own favorite papers that they like to keep in a file folder and and look at because they're interesting or revolutionary or odd and for me one of these is the 1942 report by the eminent American physiologist Walter Kennan about the phenomenon he called voodoo death voodoo death in his telling means when people believe that they have been cursed and their belief system leads them to believe that they are going to die as a result of this curse or hex being placed upon them and then they actually do and you might think to yourself well does this really happen I mean aren't these just anecdotal reports I'm skeptical I don't really believe but Walter Kennan was not some flake he was a very very eminent and careful physiologist and he documented many cases around the world where people died as a result of being cursed and he developed a physiological theory to underlie this he said that the fight or flight part of the autonomic nervous system the sympathetic nervous system became hyper aroused during hex death and this hyper arousal set in motion a series of physiological changes that ultimately killed people when they had this set of beliefs now Kennan was acting before we knew a lot of physiology that we know in the modern era he didn't know about the so-called hypothalamomopituitary adrenal axis and the production of the stress hormone co-ordisol that hadn't been invented or discovered yet and he didn't know about the key role of the parasympathetic nervous system so Kennan's theory of voodoo death was half right the sympathetic nervous system is involved but it actually seems like what you need to get have voodoo death is a one-two punch the first punch is the sympathetic nervous system goes into overdrive the second punch is that the parasympathetic nervous system comes on and stays high in its activation the rest and digestive system for many many hours or days afterwards and these two things together shut down the body and result in voodoo death ultimately if you don't have the belief that you can be killed by a hex or curse then it doesn't work it doesn't work in the spirit world it only works if you have that belief and a corollary of that is if a witch doctor tells someone who believes in it that they have cursed them but then before they die says no I've lifted the curse it's not really happened I've moved the bones I've I've changed the feathers and this curse is no longer operated then they can recover so it entirely is in the mind and the body of the recipient of the curse where this is happening it's not happening in the supernatural world it's happening biologically in the mind and the body of the recipient we might be tempted to think oh voodoo death hex curses this only happens in societies that have a certain set of supernatural beliefs that aren't the ones that dominate here in the USA or in Western Europe or in East Asia and places that are more technologically advanced but that's really not the case at all so there are papers in the medical literature about the effects of fatal misdiagnosed so for example there is a famous case of a man who was diagnosed with liver cancer and this was a number of years ago in the 1970s when the kind of scans and diagnostics that were available weren't as sophisticated as they are now and they said there's not that much we can do with you we can keep you careful comfortably says I just want to live through Christmas with my family and so he got palliative care he made it through crimsonous right after New Year's he dropped dead so we think oh well the cancer got him he was able to hang on that's wonderful they went into do the autopsy they were wrong he didn't have liver cancer at all as a matter of fact he didn't have much wrong with him it was very serious at all it was his belief that he had a fatal illness that killed him and it probably killed him in exactly the same way that voodoo death kills people who believe in it so voodoo death is not just a phenomenon of a certain group of societies around the world it is essentially also happens in modern medicine with people in white coats just in a slightly different setting everyone's family seems to have a story about a couple where one member died and then the other died of a broken heart soon thereafter and you think well this is anecdotal you know people like to tell these stories it seems romantic it's something that that you know makes us feel warm and fuzzy about the power of love but is this really true if you do epidemiology if you get a large population you look at statistics is it really true that people are more likely to die soon after their long-term partner dies and the answer is yes and what people die of are the whole range of things cardiovascular incidents cancer autoimmune diseases all of the incident of these things can go up after the loss of a loved one and it's not just a partner it can be a close friend it can be a sibling in some cases can even be a pet but this kind of emotional state of grieving definitely leads to a worse prognosis for the person who is grieving that is now well established there is a fascinating phenomenon that was first discovered by doctors in Japan in elderly grieving people and it's called taco subo cardiomyopathy taco is Japanese for octopus and subo means trap and the reason it has this name is because the heart adopts a shape like a Japanese octopus trap it produces an impairments and cardiac function most people recover from this cardiomyopathy but some people die as a result and we now believe that taco taco subo cardiomyopathy is a consequence of over activation of the sympathetic nervous system we have a biological explanation for it that allows us to bridge the behavioral experience of grief to this bodily experience of cardiac impairment so the belief that one has been hex cursed and then dies or from an inaccurate diagnosis leading to death or mourning its effect on on one's health these are all negative things that can occur as a result of your mental state but fortunately it works the other way too positive beliefs and positive mental states can work in the opposite direction and can do things like relieve pain or give you better health outcomes when people think about mind-body medicine there tends to be a focus on on behavioral things well what can meditation do what can regulated breathing and do what can what can prayer do what can psychotherapy or psychosocial support do and that is an important part of of mind-body medicine but mind-body medicine can also inform the development of drugs or devices that is to say more conventional therapies that are based on this understanding so GLP1 based drugs come from understanding information that is flowing from the body to the mind now we have implanted devices to stimulate the vagus nerve and activate the parasympathetic nervous system that are useful in depression and epilepsy and possibly some other diseases this is a device that is informed by our understanding of information flowing in the other direction from mind out to body I think most people have heard of the placebo effect which is when someone is given a sugar pill or a sham treatment instead of the conventional medical treatment and they see benefits from it nonetheless and it can happen in a lot of situations their placebo effects for pain for clearing infections for improvement in cardiovascular function to me what's interesting about placebo effects is that we now have a very good understanding about how many of them work in biological terms I think pain is probably the best example when people are given sugar pills or sham treatments and are told this will relieve their pain and it really does we now know that this effect can be blocked by the drug naloxone and naloxone works by blocking receptors for opiates in the brain and these are not just the receptors for drugs like heroin and fentanyl they are the receptors for your brains natural morphine like molecules the endorphins and the unkeflin so the fact that naloxone can block the placebo effect for pain tells us that the placebo effect for pain is being mediated in the body by endorphins and keflins by the brain's natural morphine like molecules placebo effects are best known in the case of pain relief but they can actually occur for a whole bunch of beneficial medical situations so you can have a sugar pill or a sham treatment that improves your recovery from surgery and your healing rates that can modify your immune system or in some cases if you are say receiving a graph can help you suppress your immune system we don't understand all the biology of all the cases where this works but there are some really interesting experiments that illuminate it so for example if I give you a drug that will reduce your blood pressure and then I pair that drug with say lemon lime flavoring that you drink in a in a little solution that you've taken your mouth and you pair that a number of times and then just like Pavlov's dog now if you drink the lemon lime flavoring it will be like you have the partial effect of your drug and your blood pressure will go down even though the blood pressure medicine isn't being given only the lemon lime drink is given it seems as if a portion of the placebo effect is a kind of associative learning although all the details of that are not yet understood if you're a drug company and you have a drug that you think relieves pain well the way that you are required to test it is by comparing it with a placebo so half the people in the study might get the drug and they have other half the people might get a sugar pill that they're being told is the drug for the drug to be approved it has to work significantly better than the effect that you would see just from the placebo is really fascinating to me that it seems like the placebo effect for pain over the last several decades has gotten stronger and stronger as a result of this it's harder to show a statistically significant difference for a real drug compared to the placebo because this placebo is is relieving pain to a better and better degree and and showing that something better than that then becomes much more of a challenge and you might think well why is that happening that's so weird why would the placebo effect be getting stronger it gets weirder it's not getting stronger everywhere in the world it's only getting stronger in the United States why is that the case well we don't really know but the best guess is that the United States is one of only two countries in the world the other being a New Zealand where direct to consumer advertising of drugs is allowed and so it may be that somehow this belief in the efficacy of drugs is stronger among people in the USA and maybe New Zealand although we don't know it then it is in other places and that this is the basis for the enhancement of the placebo effect for pain so the placebo effect is really counterintuitive you might imagine that nowadays people know that placebos are used in clinical trials and when someone is going into one of these trials they could be thinking am I getting the real drug am I getting a placebo and you might expect that that would make the placebo effect weaker but curiously it doesn't and it even gets weirder than that there's a phenomenon called open label placebo and an open label placebo it seems like it would never work open label placebo is who you say I'm giving you a sugar pill and it's just a sugar pill and that's what we're doing here and even with that knowledge which you then think well there's gonna be no effect whatsoever you still get a placebo effect to me that's deeply counterintuitive and yet it's been shown over and over again in the literature and there are trials and whole branches of medicine using so-called open label placebos and to me it's it's remarkable and understanding of the biology of that is something that is is gonna be really fascinating when you look at the power of placebo effects it certainly motivates you to try to understand mind to body signaling to a greater degree biologically you think well where might this lead us to a future medicine well one way is to say all right well you know maybe there are things we can do behaviorally to to to benefit in search and situations if you're recovering from a heart attack or you know you've just you've just had this or that therapy or or recovering from cancer treatment you want to engage in these particular behavioral interventions but it's not just the behavioral interventions in other words understanding the signaling will also open us up for new drugs that manipulate those pathways or devices that manipulate those pathways so for example we know that psychosocial support gives you benefit in terms of your recovery after a heart attack or after in in terms of your prognosis for for cancer and so one way is to say all right well what are the behaviors you can do but another way might be to say well maybe we could stimulate your brain artificially with a device in a way that would help you heal right now our ability to stimulate the nervous system non-invasively that is to say from outside the skull is really really crude so there are techniques there's one called transcranial magnetic stimulation there's another one called transcranial direct current stimulation these stimulate large volumes of brain tissue like the volume of a golf ball and within they stimulate every kind of neuron in that volume so they're really crude ways to activate or inhibit very large parts of the brain but with time we'll have much more subtle ways of activating small bits of the brain and not just a small volume of the brain but even there are parts of the brain where there are different flavors of neurons that that that do different tasks that are physically intermingled and it's been impossible either with an electrode or with with with one of these outside the skull methods to activate them or inhibit them but there are going to be genetic optical tricks that we can now do in experimental animals to just activate one particular type of neuron in the brain that ultimately will able to be able to do as therapies for people and this kind of manipulation that's coming down the pipe will eventually be used to exploit mind-to-body signaling in ways that are medically beneficial and so mind-body medicine just doesn't help us in the realm of behavioral interventions it also helps us in the more conventional realm of drugs and devices大脑如何对抗癌症:神经、免疫与社会支持的交织
David Linden教授在五年前被诊断出患有侵袭性滑膜肉瘤(Synovial Sarcoma: 一种罕见的恶性软组织肿瘤),预估寿命仅剩6至18个月。他通过手术移除了心脏壁上的巨大肿瘤,但仍有部分残留。面对绝症,他采取了“书呆子之道”,即尽可能深入理解自己的疾病,从而获得掌控感和能动性。虽然他并非癌症生物学家,但神经科学的背景促使他探索大脑功能与癌症之间的复杂互动。
癌症本质上是失控的细胞生长,但其狡猾之处在于它会劫持(Co-opt: 征用或利用某物以达到自己的目的)身体的其他系统来逃避免疫攻击并促进自身生长。肿瘤会发出信号干扰免疫系统,使其误认为没有威胁,从而避免被攻击。此外,肿瘤还会分泌化学信号,吸引血管向其生长,为其提供营养,从而加速肿瘤的生长和扩散。近10至15年的研究发现,神经系统也参与了这一过程,肿瘤细胞与神经之间存在多种形式的对话(Dialogue: 指生物系统内部的相互作用和信息交换)。肿瘤会分泌神经营养因子(Neurotrophins: 促进神经元生长、存活和分化的蛋白质),如神经生长因子(Nerve Growth Factor, NGF)和脑源性神经营养因子(Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, BDNF),吸引神经长入肿瘤内部,甚至穿透肿瘤。
反过来,神经也会影响肿瘤。例如,传递疼痛信号的感觉神经元(Sensory Neurons: 负责将感觉信息从身体传递到大脑和脊髓的神经元)会分泌一种信号分子——降钙素基因相关肽(Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide, CGRP)。CGRP会抑制肿瘤边缘的免疫细胞(即CD8阳性T淋巴细胞,CD8 Positive T Lymphocytes: 一种能识别并杀死癌细胞的免疫细胞)的活性,使其无法有效清除肿瘤细胞,从而促进肿瘤的生长和扩散。因此,当肿瘤被神经支配时,预后往往更差。阻止肿瘤神经支配,成为癌症治疗中一个充满希望的新方向,有望减缓肿瘤的生长和扩散。
除了传统医疗手段,心理状态和社会支持对癌症患者的康复也至关重要。心脏病学领域的研究表明,社会支持(家人陪伴、心理治疗)能显著改善心脏病患者的康复效果。以色列科学家Esa Rolls的动物实验也为这一现象提供了生物学依据:通过人工激活小鼠大脑中的奖赏与预期回路(Reward and Anticipation Circuitry: 大脑中与愉悦、动机和预测奖赏相关的神经通路,涉及腹侧被盖区),可以显著加速其心脏病发作后的康复速度,这与人类社会联系对心脏病康复的影响相吻合。
虽然我们无法在人体上进行类似的小鼠实验,但这些研究揭示了通过免疫信号(Immune Signaling: 免疫细胞之间以及免疫细胞与其他细胞之间的信息传递)和肝脏的旁路作用,最终影响心脏功能恢复的生物学通路。虽然社会支持、心理治疗和亲友的爱能否延长癌症患者寿命、减少肿瘤转移和生长尚无定论,但现有流行病学证据表明,心理社会支持确实对癌症进展具有一定的积极影响,尽管它不能替代化疗或手术。
理解大脑与癌症微环境之间的信息流动,有助于开发新的治疗策略。例如,某些类型的癌细胞表面有β肾上腺素受体(Beta Adrenergic Receptor: 细胞膜上与肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素结合的受体),它能与去甲肾上腺素(Noradrenalin,也称去甲肾上腺素:一种神经递质和激素,参与应激反应和情绪调节)结合。β受体阻滞剂(Beta Blockers: 一类阻断β肾上腺素受体的药物,常用于治疗心血管疾病和焦虑症),不仅可以减缓心率、缓解焦虑,对于一些癌症患者,它们似乎也能减缓癌症进展,因为肿瘤细胞上的β受体有助于癌症的生长。因此,理解大脑与身体在癌症中的信号传导,不仅能指导更好的行为干预,也能促进新药物的开发。
运动对癌症预后也有显著益处。许多相关性研究表明,运动可以延长患者寿命,减缓疾病进展,提高缓解率。但这类研究可能存在混杂因素,例如那些更爱运动的人可能本身癌症就不那么严重,或者生活习惯更健康。然而,最近的随机对照研究(Randomized Controlled Study: 一种通过随机分组来评估干预措施效果的实验设计)提供了更有力的证据。2025年一项针对结肠癌患者的研究发现,被随机分配到运动组的患者,在八年内死亡率降低了30%。这种效果堪比一种高效的抗癌药物,证明了运动对癌症的明确且重要的益处。
David Linden教授本人在2021年被诊断出癌症,预估寿命仅剩6-18个月,但到2025年录制此节目时他依然健在。他认为,除了医疗干预,来自妻子Dina深沉无条件的爱也是他得以存活的重要原因。他强调,这并非情感上的感叹,而是基于生物医学研究者的视角,认为这种爱通过生物学机制发挥作用。一种可能的机制是,肿瘤可能接收来自副交感神经系统和交感神经系统以及感觉神经纤维的信号。大脑中由妻子之爱所激活的腹侧被盖奖赏和预期回路(Ventral Tegmental Reward and Anticipation Circuitry: 位于大脑中脑,是奖赏系统的重要组成部分),可能通过下丘脑(Hypothalamus: 大脑中调节多种生理功能的区域,包括情绪、饥饿和体温)和其他脑区,向肿瘤传递电信号,从而抑制其生长和扩散。另一种机制是,这一通路可能通过调节大脑对免疫系统的控制,刺激细胞因子(Cytokines: 免疫细胞分泌的信号分子)的释放,增强免疫系统中循环T细胞(Circulating T Cells: 血液中巡逻的T淋巴细胞,能识别并攻击病原体或癌细胞)和自然杀伤细胞(Natural Killer Cells: 一种先天免疫细胞,能直接杀死癌细胞和病毒感染细胞)对抗肿瘤的能力。虽然这些生物学路径尚处于早期研究阶段,但重要的是,我们现在可以对曾经被认为是行为或精神层面的现象提出生物学假设。
Original English Source
chapter four how are brains fight cancer so nearly five years ago I was given six to 18 months to live as a consequence of my diagnosis of synovial sarcoma an aggressive form of cancer I underwent surgery because they found a huge mass that was growing in my heart wall and the mass was enormous it was about the volume of a coca-cola can I had a very long and elaborate surgery before the surgery they thought this mass was likely to be a teratoma which is a group of cells that have been present in your body since fetal life that grow in a weird way so not a tumor not cancer a developmental abnormality but unfortunately they did the big surgery they couldn't remove all of the mass they had to leave some of it that had grown into my heart wall and remains there to this day a bit about the size of a walnut and when they did the pathology they said well no actually you have cancer and you have a rare form of cancer called synovial sarcoma and you're probably gonna die within six to 18 months it's a weird thing to be a biomedical researcher and to also be battling a terminal illness the way I have approached my terminal illness is what I call the way of the nerd and the way of the nerd is to understand as much as you possibly can about your illness and to feel a sense of agency and control and for me that has not been so much about learning all the molecular details about about cancer I'm not a cancer biologist and I never have been and I never will be but because my background is in neuroscience it has brought me to understand the interactions between mental function brain function and my particular cancer situation for some people it's the last thing they want to do the last thing they want to do is to dive into all the biological details and understand the ins and outs of the disease and I completely respect that and feel like that is a valid choice but for a subset of us like me the way of the nerd is empowering and is a way to to deal with a terminal illness and make it possible to thrive in this in this liminal time while I'm still around so cancer is an opportunistic bastard right cancer is to sell growth that gets out of control there are many situations where we need ourselves to divide and create more cells and for them for that process to stop we need it when we grow as babies we need it when we grow up we need it to regenerate certain tissues like in our skin that continually grow or the the lining of our respiratory or digestive system these are things that are continually renewed so we need cells to divide that's a fundamental thing but when it gets out of control that's cancer but that's not just how cancer works in other words cancer isn't just a bunch of cells that start dividing and then that's all that happens when I say the cancer is a bastard what I mean is that cancer co-ops other systems in the body to prevent the tumor cells from being degraded by your own immune system it sends out signals that interfere with the immune system and the cells of the immune system to make it think like oh there isn't really any problem no that was just a hoax you don't actually need to attack me and it also co-ops signals that that that caused the cancer to grow and spread so we know that many tumors for example send out chemical signals that attract blood vessels to grow in and nourish and feed the tumor and promote its growth that's been known for quite a number of decades what is really becoming more understood just in the last 10 or 15 years is that the same thing happens with nerves so there's a dialogue between tumor cells and nerves actually several forms of dialogue many tumors secrete signals that cause nerves to grow into the tumor they secrete molecules called neurotrophins that cause the nerve cells to grow in the direction of the tumor and ultimately actually penetrate the tumor and these neurotrophins include molecules called nerve growth factor or NGF and brain-derived neurofurfic factor or BDNF but it's not just that the tumor talks to the nerves the nerves talk to the tumors in many different ways and one particular class of neuron which are pain-conveying sensory neurons secrete a signaling molecule called calcetonin gene-related peptide or CGRP CGRP affects immune cells that patrol around the edge of the tumor and sort of nibble at its edges and kill the cells on the edge of the tumor and as a result prevent it from growing and spreading so when CGRP affects these immune cells which are called CD8 positive T lymphocytes it suppresses their activity so they don't nibble the edges of the tumors as much so then the tumor can grow more and so tumors when they are innervated your prognosis becomes worse and if we can prevent tumors from becoming innervated this is a whole new promising realm in cancer therapy to slow the growth and spread of tumors if you buy a doctor a drink or two and you get them to talk to you they're very likely to say it's not just the conventional medical therapy that determines the likelihood of someone's successful outcome when they're in the hospital or they're being treated in the office it has to also do with their own mental state and their own psychosocial support it's well known in cardiology that people recover better from heart attacks and from the treatment following heart attack if they have social support if they have their family around them if they have psychotherapy and this is an observation that has been borne out in a number of studies but the underlying biology has not been clear now we have some very interesting experiments in mice which are in early days but are starting to draw out the biological pathways that might underlie that beneficial effect and this comes from the laboratory of esa rolls in Israel and she has shown that if you artificially block the arteries of laboratory mice to give them heart attacks that they can recover better if you artificially activate the brain's natural reward and expectation circuitry this is the dopamine using circuitry that involves a brain region called the ventral tegmental area and if you use optical and genetic tricks to activate that circuitry that the mice recover from their artificial experimental induced heart attack much much faster their ability of their heart to forcefully contract and pump blood through the body comes back faster than it would otherwise mimicking what we know about social connection on social and report support in humans recovering from heart attack we can do things in laboratory mice that wouldn't be ethical to do in humans like go in and and make manipulations and measurements and so we can now understand a cascade that goes through immune signaling involves a bypass through the liver that ultimately gets us to the heart and its recovery of function so it would be obviously comforting to think that social support psychotherapy the love of one's family and friends and social connectedness can help you have a better cancer outcome can increase your lifespan reduce the spread the metastasis of cancer the growth of tumors but is this just something we like to think or is it real and and at this point there is enough epidemiological evidence suggesting that psychosocial support either in the case of of psychotherapy or more informally through one social connections it's not a miracle it can't replace chemotherapy or surgery or radiation but it does seem to have some beneficial effect on cancer progression what does this mean in terms about how we should think about making cancer therapy better well obviously there are behavioral things that you can do to make your to make your cancer better meditative practice things that that reduce stress seem to be good and we seem to understand the biology of that because we know that stress hormone signaling promotes the growth and spread of tumors we know that that psychotherapy reduces stress hormone signaling as well but it's not just behavioral manipulations understanding that information is flowing from the brain to the cancer microenvironment whether it's having effect on cancer cells directly around the immune cells that are patrolling around and keeping the cancer in check this allows us to develop new drug therapies as well so for example there are certain types of cancer that have a neurotransmitter receptor on them called the beta adrenergic receptor this is the receptor for a neurotransmitter slash hormone called noradremilin which confusingly also has the name nor epinephrine it's the same molecule and people may have heard of drugs called beta blockers which are drugs that people take to to calm their heart rate and feel more calm if they're feeling anxiety these same beta blocking drugs for a subset of cancers seem to slow cancer progression because the beta receptors on the tumor cells contribute to cancer progression so this understanding of brain to body signaling in cancer allows us not just to have better behavioral measures to combat cancer but to have better drug use as well there are a lot of correlational studies that have shown that when people exercise their cancer outcomes are better they live longer they progress less quickly they're more likely to go into remission but you got to be suspicious of these studies because the devil's in the details well you could say well maybe the people who are more inclined to exercise maybe their cancer wasn't as bad to start with maybe they didn't feel as ill and that's why they're more likely to exercise and so it's not really that exercise makes it better it's a complication of that or you might say well maybe the kind of people who are motivated to exercise a lot are also the kind of people who are more likely not to have bad habits like smoking or drug use they're more likely to healthy diet and it's the it's the reducing drug use on the healthy diet that's beneficial for cancer and the exercise isn't even it's but recently there have been a few randomized control studies where we take a group of of people and we say of cancer patients and we say all right you guys exercise and you guys just like do whatever you want to do we're giving you this pamphlet but we're not going to enroll you in exercise class we're not going to monitor you we're not going to give you social support and there was just a study published this year in 2025 out of Australia for colon cancer and the result was remarkably strong the people who were randomly placed in the exercise group had a 30% improvement in mortality over eight years if this were a drug effect it would be everybody would want this drug this would be a massive anti-cancer effect this kind of study doesn't suffer from the same problems of these post-hoc association studies of is it really the exercise that gave the benefit or the things that go along with the exercise something merely correlated with it so the evidence is really looking like the benefits of exercise for cancer are clear and they're not small effects they're big effects if you're battling cancer and you can bring yourself to do it exercises one of the very very best things that you can do we're recording this in 2025 I was given six to eighteen months to live in 2021 and so you can do the math in your head and realize that I didn't fortunately really die in six to 18 months and yet here I am still alive and people ask me why do you think you're still alive and I said well I don't entirely know but I think a portion of it comes from the deep love that I feel from my wife Dina and when I say this people get a look on their face like oh isn't that sweet he's complimenting his wife he's taking off his scientist hat and he is putting on his good spouse hat and that's not the case that's not what I mean when I say that the deep and unconditional love that I feel my wife is helping to keep my cancer at bay I am saying that as a biomedical researcher and I am saying that with the idea that this isn't occurring in the realm of of ether and spirituality that it is occurring in the realm of biology so how might this happen how do we get from my wife's deep and unconditional love to my cancer being suppressed well the answer is we don't entirely know but there's a couple of likely ways one of them is that it's extremely likely that like many tumors my tumor receives nerve fibers from both the parasympathetic and the sympathetic nervous system as well as sensory nerve fibers and as a consequence patterns of activity in my brain evoked by my wife's love like activation of the ventral tegmental reward and anticipation circuitry through their action in the hypothalamus and some other brain areas are conveying signals electrical signals to my tumor that ultimately suppress its growth and spread however it is also very likely that this very same pathway the activation of the reward and anticipation circuitry in the brain is producing modification of the brain's control of the immune system and is boosting my immune system through the secretion of immune signaling molecules called cytokines in a way that allows circulating T cells and naturally natural killer cells in my immune system to more effectively attack the surface of the tumor that's large in my heart wall what's exciting about this even though it's early days and even though we don't absolutely know that either of those two biological pathways are indeed the way that my cancer is being kept at bay what's exciting is that we are now at a point where we have biological hypotheses for what before would have been solely behavioral or spiritual explanations神经科学家对死亡的思考:大脑的预测机制与生命感悟
在被诊断出绝症时,David Linden教授感到无比愤怒,59岁的他尚未准备好面对死亡。他有未竟的事业、深爱的家人和美好的生活。然而,与此同时,他内心深处也充满了感激(Gratitude: 对所拥有的美好心怀感恩的情绪)。他意识到,作为神经科学家,我们通常认为精神状态是单一的(比如“战斗”或“休息”),但实际上,一个人可以同时处于两种截然不同的精神状态——极度愤怒与极度感激。这是癌症带给他的深刻领悟。
另一个重要启示是,我们的大脑和心智并非旨在揭示绝对的真相。我们所感知的一切都受到情绪状态和期望的强烈影响。他曾认为如果能多活五年就心满意足,但在确诊前,他会觉得五年寿命远远不够。这说明,即使是像“生命长度”这样看似基本的事物,其价值也是高度主观的,取决于所处的语境。
最深刻的体会是,他无论如何努力,都无法真正接受“自己的死亡”以及“一个没有我的世界”这个概念。虽然他可以处理实际事务(如立遗嘱),但却无法在认知和情感上深入思考一个没有自己的世界。他发现自己的心智只是“掠过”这个想法的表面,无法真正深入。这可能并非他个人的缺陷,而是揭示了人类心智的一个基本特性。
经过40多年的神经科学研究,David Linden教授指出,我们对大脑的理解发生了根本性变化。过去认为大脑是被动反应(Reactive: 仅对外部刺激作出回应)的,即接收感官信息后进行处理并作出反应。然而,现在我们知道,当大脑处于“空闲”状态(不与外部世界互动)时,它并非只是在发呆,而是在积极地预测未来(Predicting the Future: 大脑根据现有信息推测未来事件的能力)。大脑本质上是一台预测机器(Prediction Machine: 一种将大脑功能理解为持续预测未来状态的理论),具体来说,它在预测近期的未来:接下来的几分钟、几小时甚至几天。例如,一块飞来的石头是否会击中头部?迎面走来的人是朋友还是敌人?接下来的几个小时是否会感到饥饿,以及如何规划一天?所有这些都是大脑在默认模式网络(Default Mode Network: 大脑在休息或不执行任务时活跃的区域,与自我反思、未来思考等有关)中“闲置”时进行的预测。
大脑持续预测未来,其前提是“未来存在”。它预设了你不会死亡和消失。David Linden教授推测,这种基本的“未来预测”计算,不仅阻碍了他和许多人真正面对自己的死亡和想象一个没有自己的世界,也正是世界各地几乎所有宗教都存在来世(Afterlife: 死亡后的生命或存在状态)、轮回(Reincarnation: 灵魂在新的身体中重生)或与神融合(Melding of the Divine: 意识与神性合一)等概念的重要原因。他认为,这在某种程度上是一种“缺陷”或“副作用”,是大脑近未来预测回路的产物,它让我们能想象意识在死亡后依然存在。虽然他个人并非有信仰之人,不认为意识在死后会继续存在,但他对这些跨文化、宗教和精神层面的“意识永存”观念抱有极大的同情,并认为其背后存在神经学和生物学解释。
David Linden教授表示,在生命余下的时光里,他最感激的并非那些“小确幸”,而是生命中最重要的事物:深爱的妻子、出色的孩子以及支持他的朋友和同事。他每天都会努力铭记这些,并感恩能作为地球上的有感知生物(Sentient Being: 具有感知、感受和意识能力的生命),拥有心智、保持好奇,并以独特的方式体验世界。这在他看来,是一个奇迹,让他永怀感激。
Original English Source
chapter five how a neuroscientist prepares for death when I got the diagnosis I was supremely angry at age 59 I did not feel ready to die I felt like I have a lot to do I have people who depend upon me I have a wonderful wife terrific children I don't want to leave and I was white hot angry with the universe but at the very same time I felt a very deep sense of gratitude I've been fortunate in life I've had a wonderful life I have terrific people around me I've been able to have a job that has allowed me to not have a boss and to follow my own curiosity and to use my mind in ways that most people don't get and so what was remarkable as a neuroscientist is that we tend to think of mental states as being unitary are you preparing to to to to to fight or are you going to rest but it's possible to occupy two very divergent mental states at the same time so I could simultaneously be exceedingly angry and exceedingly grateful and that was something that I didn't realize before my cancer taught me that another thing is that it really reinforced to me that our brains and our minds are not built to give us the truth to give us the low down about about anything we're not we're not built to know the absolute values of things everything is of subjective everything that we perceive is subject to our emotional state and to our expectations when I was diagnosed I thought well if I could get five more years of life that would be so wonderful I could spend time with my family I could travel I could do some work in my laboratory I could have my trainees finish their experiments naturally and not have their careers messed with so many good things what happened getting five more years would be great when I was looking at a diagnosis of six to eighteen months but if someone had just come up to me before cancer and said well you're gonna die in five years I would have said what do you mean I'm only 59 I should get more than five years what the hell are you talking about so something as fundamental as five more years of life that we think of being having a very basic value doesn't in one context it seems like an impossible gift in another context it seems like being cosmically cheated but I think the realization that I had that was the most profound for me as a neuroscientist grappling with a terminal diagnosis was the fact that as much as I tried I really could not and still to this day not cannot engage with the idea of my own death of a world where I'm no longer in it now I can do practical things I can make sure my will is in order I can dot the eyes and cross the t's but that's not what I'm talking about I'm talking about truly cognitively and emotionally engaging and thinking about a world with me no longer in it I realized that my mind was really kind of skittering across the surface of this idea that I was not able to engage with it deeply in the matter that I think it really deserved this probably wasn't just my own personal failing it was revealing something fundamental about what it's like to have a human mind I've been in the neuroscience for for a long time over 40 years now and there has been a fundamental change in how we think about the brain we used to think that the brain was fundamentally reactive that we waited for something information to come in for our senses and then we would do some processing on it and then react to it and what we now know is that when we are spacing out when our brain is idling when we are not engaging with the outside world that the brain is not just spacing out that we are actively trying to predict the future the brains a prediction machine and specifically it's not just trying to predict the the future it's trying to predict the near future it's trying to predict the next few minutes the next few hours maybe the next few days is that rock flying through you're gonna hit me in the head is this person walking towards me a friend or a foe am I likely to become hungry in the next few hours and how I should plan my day these are all predictions that are happening in my brain while it idols while it's in its so-called default mode now the fact that the brain is trunk constantly trying to predict the future presupposes that there will be a future it presupposes that you're not dead and gone and so I think this fundamental computation this fundamental future predicting computation is not just what keeps me and perhaps others isn't my situation from truly engaging with our own mortality and imagining a world without us in it but I would speculate that this is what has allowed for afterlife stories being so important in almost not all but almost all of the world's religions almost all of the world's religions have the story of an afterlife or reincarnation or melding of the divine or some kind of construct in which one's consciousness endures after we die I think that this is in some ways a bug it is a bug it's a side effect of the near future predicting circuitry in our brain that allows us to imagine that consciousness goes on after death now I'm personally I'm not a person of faith I think that when you die and you die your consciousness doesn't go on but I am very sympathetic to these cross-cultural religious and spiritual ideas that consciousness endures and I think ultimately there is a neurological and a biological explanation for why those stories are present all around the world some people say well do you appreciate the little things more like do you appreciate you know the color in the sunset and the taste of your tea in the morning and you know to a certain extent I guess I do but really I am appreciative in the time I have left of the very largest things that life has afforded me you know but my terrific wife who I love deeply my wonderful children and the good friends and colleagues that I have that have been so supportive this is what I'm thankful for this is what I try to remember every day and the time I have left the wonder and the privilege of being a sentient being on this planet and be able to to have a mind and to and to be curious and to move through through the world in this way it's it's a miracle and I find myself ever grateful. Want to support the channel? Join the Big Think members community where you get access to videos early, ad-free.📌 文中提及的人物和组织
人物: Walter Kennan, Esa Rolls
公司/组织: Johns Hopkins University, Novo Nordisk
产品/模型: Semaglutide, Tirzepatide